Introduction
Literature serves the purpose of conveying meaning, but comprehending the message of a novel, play, or poem can require some effort. However, with the right tools, you can develop a deep understanding of the texts you read and confidently approach even the most daunting topics in literature.
Literary theory and criticism can illuminate the hidden meanings within a text, enabling you to:
- Grasp the themes, symbols, and motifs presented in a text.
- Analyze an author's writing style.
- Craft a critical essay or analysis of a book.
- Engage in a comprehensive literary discussion.
- Teach students how to ask analytical questions about a text.
I. Definitions
“Literary theory’, also known as “critical theory” or “theory”, is a field within literary studies that is currently transitioning into “cultural theory.” It encompasses a set of concepts and intellectual assumptions that are used to explain and interpret literary texts.
In simpler terms, literary theory is a way of understanding and interpreting works of art. It involves principles derived from analyzing literary texts internally or from external knowledge that can be applied in different interpretive situations. When readers and scholars engage in literary criticism, which involves evaluating literature, they often rely on literary theories to shape their ideas and opinions about a text.
Literary theory plays a crucial role in establishing the relationship between the author and their work. It also explores the significance of race, class, and gender in literary study, considering both the author’s biography and the thematic elements present in the texts. Additionally, literary theory offers various approaches to understanding the impact of historical context on interpretation and the relevance of linguistic and unconscious aspects of the text.
Literary theorists examine the history and evolution of different genres, such as narrative, dramatic, and lyric, as well as the emergence of the novel and short story. They also investigate the importance of formal elements in literary structure. Furthermore, in recent years, literary theory has aimed to explain how texts are influenced by culture and, in turn, contribute to shaping it.
It is important to note that while “literary criticism” and “literary theory” are related, they are not interchangeable terms.
Literary theories can be compared to eyeglasses or camera lenses that scholars use to analyze and assess works of literature and art. Each theory provides a different perspective, which becomes the main focus of their literary criticism.
Literary criticism is a research approach and a form of scholarly discussion that involves the application of literary theory.
II. Examples
There are numerous ways to interpret a piece of literature, known as literary theories or lenses. Scholars often combine multiple theories to analyze literary texts. Over time, new theories have emerged that reflect contemporary issues and perspectives, enhancing the study of literature.
Here are some examples of the most prominent schools of thought in literary theory, along with a brief description of each. Other literary theories, to varying extents, adopt a postmodern perspective on language and reality, which questions the objective meaning of literary studies. These categories are not exhaustive and can overlap, but they represent the main trends in literary theory in recent times.
1. Structuralist Theory
Structuralist Theory gained popularity in the 1920s and has since been widely accepted as one of the more complex literary theories. In simple terms, structuralists analyze how language and linguistics function as a form of written or spoken code. Just like language and music have patterns, literature also contains patterns that can be seen in a writer’s use of myths, archetypes, symbols, or genres. Instead of focusing on specific meanings, structuralists are more interested in the underlying structures of meaning itself. They emphasize “langue” rather than “parole.” “Structuralism” is essentially a metalanguage, a language about languages, used to decipher actual languages or systems of meaning.
2. Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic Theory originates from the work of Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis. As a literary theory, it emerged in the 1930s. Psychoanalytic Theory explores the role of the psyche and the unconscious in individuals and literary characters. It examines how they interpret the influence of society and culture on themselves and others.
3. Marxist Theory
The origins of Marxist Theory are attributed to Karl Marx, a German philosopher who lived from 1818 to 1883. Marx believed that individuals are shaped by the economic and social conditions in which they are raised. Since the 1930s, Marxists have been studying the conflicts between different social classes as they are portrayed in literature and other areas. In addition to economic matters, Marxists also analyze how a text uses politics to either support or challenge societal norms. Marxist theorists often support authors who are sympathetic to the working class and those whose work questions the economic inequalities present in capitalist societies. Following the comprehensive nature of Marxism, literary theories derived from this perspective aim to not only understand the connection between economic production and literature but also all forms of cultural production. Marxist analyses of society and history have had a significant impact on literary theory and practical criticism, particularly in the development of “New Historicism” and “Cultural Materialism.”
4. Feminist Theory
Feminist Theory emerged in the 1960s, and although feminist scholars have different definitions of feminism, they all share a concern about power dynamics resulting from stereotypes and discrimination against women. While some critics may not identify as feminists, the idea that gender is a social construct is widely accepted in various theoretical perspectives. In the field of literary theory, three movements – “Marxist theory” of the Frankfurt School, “Feminism,” and “Postmodernism” – have expanded the scope of literary studies. Marxist approaches to literature focus on understanding the economic and social foundations of culture, as they believe that art is influenced by society’s structure. Feminist thought and practice analyze the creation of literature and how women are portrayed in historical and cultural contexts.
5. Critical Race Theory and African-American Literary Theory
Since the 1970s, Critical Race Theory and African-American Literary Theory have allowed American scholars to examine the influence of race and racism in different forms of expression. These literary theories are closely connected to African – American Studies, as well as Asian American, Latino, and Indian Studies. They also intersect with social activism, civil and human rights, and cultural understandings of race and stereotypes.
6. New Historicism
New Historicism, which emerged in the 1980s, focuses on the interpretation of historical events in literature rather than the facts. It examines the role of culture in literature from both the writer’s perspective and the characters’ perspectives. On the other hand, New Criticism aimed to bring more intellectual rigor to literary studies by closely analyzing the text itself and its formal structures, such as paradox, ambiguity, irony, and metaphor. The proponents of New Criticism believed that their readings of poetry could humanize readers and counter the alienation of modern life.
7. Gender Studies and Queer Theory
Gender Studies and Queer Theory emerged in the 1990s, with scholars considering gender and sexuality in their analysis of literature. These fields are often associated with Feminist Theory because they all focus on power dynamics and marginalized populations.
8. Postcolonial Studies
Postcolonial Studies emerged in the 1990s, aiming to shed light on literature by both Western colonizers and the colonized. This field explores various issues such as politics, religion, culture, and economics within the context of power dynamics.
III. Key Figures in Literary Theory
1. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797):
An English writer and philosopher who advocated for women’s rights. In her influential work, A Vindication of the Rights of Women, published in 1792, Wollstonecraft argued against the subordination of women and criticized the oppressive societal conventions imposed on them. Her ideas laid the foundation for the feminist movement.
2. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986):
A French feminist, existentialist, and social theorist, was the first to distinguish between sex, which is biological, and gender, which is shaped by social constructs and stereotypes. De Beauvoir’s philosophical writings greatly contributed to our understanding of gender roles in society.
3. Judith Butler (1956- ):
An American professor, philosopher, and gender theorist whose work is widely studied in queer theory. According to Butler, gender identities are influenced by individuals repeatedly “performing” their gender based on dominant expectations, stereotypes, and conventions.
4. Bell Hooks (1952- ):
The pen name of Gloria Jean Watkins, an American professor and feminist activist. Hooks has written extensively on art, media, gender, race, and class. Her contributions to literary theory are highly regarded within various literary schools of thought.
5. Roland Barthes (1915-1980):
A French literary theorist, focused on the power of signs to convey meaning. His complex ideas on communication, language, and cultural phenomena greatly influenced the development of Structuralism and semiotics as literary theories.
6. Noam Chomsky (1928- ):
An American theoretical linguist and political activist known for his multidisciplinary contributions to mathematics, psychology, and analytic philosophy. In the context of literary theory, Chomsky is renowned for his ideas on linguistics and psycholinguistics.
7. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939):
An Austrian neurologist founded psychoanalysis. His psychoanalytic theory of personality, which involves the id, ego, and superego, can be applied to individuals and characters, revealing Freud’s insights into their motivations and reactions.
8. W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963):
An American poet, sociologist, and civil rights activist. DuBois’s scholarly works advocated for equal treatment of Black people in a world that deemed them inferior. As a professor of sociology, economics, and history, he often applied Marxist theory to his interpretation of American history.
9. Karl Marx (1818-1883):
A German historian, economist, and sociologist co-authored several texts with Friedrich Engels that laid the foundation for socialist and communist political movements. Marx’s humanism and concern for the lower classes inspired his revolutionary ideas.
10. Edward Said (1935-2003):
A Palestinian-American professor is a pioneer in the field of Postcolonial Studies. He was the first to critique the European tendency to unfairly represent Asians in literature and art, asserting Western power over the East. This perpetuated damaging stereotypes that portrayed Eastern people as inferior to Westerners.
IV. Practice
1. Marxist reading of The Great Gatsby
In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, The Great Gatsby, the character Nick experiences a strong feeling of discomfort when he attends one of Jay Gatsby’s extravagant parties. By applying a Marxist literary theory to analyze Nick’s awkwardness, scholars can gain a deeper understanding of the scene, Nick’s character, and Jay Gatsby himself. Nick’s social class separates him from Gatsby and his wealthy guests, making him an outsider to the opulence of Gatsby’s world. A Marxist interpretation of Nick’s role in the novel adds to the irony of the revelation that Gatsby is pretending to be someone he is not. In reality, Gatsby comes from a poor farming background, which means he has more in common with Nick than with his party attendees.
2. African American Literary Theory in To Kill a Mockingbird
In Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, the character Tom Robinson is a Black man who suffered an arm injury as a child. His left arm was caught in a cotton gin, which left him disabled. The author’s purpose in giving Tom this injury may be to symbolize the challenges faced by African Americans. Tom’s disability, along with his race, made him highly vulnerable in Alabama during the Great Depression. His disability hinders his ability to work, just as his race hinders his ability to survive his trial when he is falsely accused of assaulting a White woman. The symbolism of Tom’s injured arm highlights the harmful and potentially deadly effects of racism on innocent men.
3. Structuralism and Mythology
In mythology, gods and goddesses eat ambrosia and nectar, which is different from the food that humans eat. By using a literary theory, we can understand why this difference exists and what it means. Structuralist analysis of the food consumed by gods and humans in Greek myths reveals a consistent pattern of behavior. The type of food distinguishes humans from gods: humans eat olives and drink wine, while gods consume ambrosia, nectar, and the smoke from sacrificed offerings. By examining the eating habits in mythology, scholars gain insight into the overall myth system of ancient Greece and Rome.
Conclusion
In summary, literary theory provides different methods to comprehend how historical context influences interpretation and the importance of language and unconscious elements in a text. Recently, literary theory has aimed to explain to what extent a text is shaped by a culture rather than an individual author, and how these texts contribute to shaping the culture.