Introduction
History and literature are closely connected. By understanding the historical context of a literary work and the literary movement it belongs to, we can better appreciate and analyze it. This allows us to form informed opinions about what we are analyzing rather than just having random thoughts. Whether you consider yourself an avid reader or not, literature has a significant impact on all of our lives. Many of today’s artistic endeavors, such as films, television shows, YouTube videos, and even internet celebrities, owe a great deal to literature. Of course, comprehending literature as a whole is a daunting task. However, one way to gain a general understanding is to break it down into literary movements or epochs.
I. Timeline
Henry Augustin Beers, a literature historian and professor at Yale who lived during the late 19th century, wrote highly detailed histories of American and English literature. His works covered various periods, including the medieval period from 500 to 1500 and the ongoing postmodernist era that began in the late 1960s. Beers’ timelines not only highlight major literary periods and movements but also document significant events that shaped literary history. Additionally, he explores the works of famous authors from Beowulf to Samuel Beckett.
II. Meaning
A literary movement or epoch refers to a collection of literary works written during a specific period, including plays, novels, novellas, serialized stories, and poems. These works are categorized together because they share certain characteristics, such as a common perspective, philosophy or ideology, aesthetic, school of thought, or the social, political, and cultural influences that shaped them.
III. Events
1. Literary Movements in England
1.1. Old English (450-1066)
The Old English period lasted from around 450 CE until the Norman conquest in 1066 CE. Old English is the earliest form of written English and was influenced by the languages of the Anglo-Saxons, as well as Latin. During this time, there was a linguistic exchange among Western European countries, particularly Germany, Italy, and France. This is why we can find traces of German, Latin, and French in Old English and modern-day English. The Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain, bringing their language and culture.
In this period, Latin was the language of scholars and education, so it had a wide range of vocabulary, including words for plants and animals, elements and metals, household objects, and various medical, social, political, and military concepts. The Vikings had established their presence in Britain by this time and further influenced the common speech. Old Norse is said to have introduced third-person plural pronouns to English. King Alfred (c. 849-899) is credited with promoting education in Britain. Old English started to lose its inflectional endings and underwent other linguistic changes, leading to a transition from Old to Middle English.
1.2. Middle English (1066-1500)
The Middle English period lasted for about 300 years and was greatly influenced by the Norman conquest of 1066. This conquest significantly impacted Old English’s grammar, spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary. However, Middle English is quite similar to the English we use today. During this period, a large number of texts were religious, although there were also some fictional texts. Even the fictional texts often contained religious themes and symbols. Around the year 1400, the Great Vowel Shift began, which brought about significant changes in English pronunciation.
The Great Vowel Shift lasted from around 1400 to 1700 and was a period of change in English pronunciation. There was a noticeable shift in the sounds of long vowels, as well as the silencing of certain consonants. This shift resulted from the migration of large groups of people, leading to a blending of accents and the influence of French due to the Norman conquest, as well as the war with France.
1.3. The Renaissance (1500-1660)
The Renaissance was a movement that began in Western Europe, particularly in Italy, and was influenced by the principles of humanism. It was a time of rebirth for society, culture, and art, as people became enthusiastic about classical culture and sought innovation and reform throughout Europe. The Renaissance significantly impacted various areas, including art, architecture, literature, scientific advancements, technology, and politics. It also saw the emergence of notable figures like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo in Italy, as well as renowned authors such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser in England.
1.4. The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)
The literary movement known as the Elizabethan era was named after Queen Elizabeth I of England. Queen Elizabeth I was a strong supporter of the arts and frequently invited artists, including William Shakespeare, to perform for her and her court. She was not only a patron of the arts, but also a talented poet and a capable ruler. Despite surviving multiple assassination attempts, she successfully defeated the Spanish Armada. In paintings of herself, she portrayed herself as The Virgin Queen, symbolizing her dedication to Britain. Thanks to her support, art flourished during her reign, earning it the nickname The Golden Age. Queen Elizabeth I was so popular that many literary works of the time included characters that referenced her, such as Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene.
1.5. The Jacobean Age (1603-1625)
The Jacobean Age, like the Elizabethan Age, is named after King James I, the reigning monarch. It is referred to as the Jacobean era because Jacobus is the Latin version of the King’s name. The Jacobean style can be seen in literature, architecture, visual arts, and decor.
1.6. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)
We refer to this time as the Restoration Period because it marked the restoration of the English monarchy. In 1649, Charles I, the English monarch, was executed, and the country was governed by senior ministers and officers of Parliament and the Council of State under the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. This continued until Charles II, the son of the king, arrived in 1660. The period without a reigning king is known as the Interregnum. When Charles II arrived, the English monarchy was reinstated. The literature produced during this time is called Restoration literature because a significant portion of it was a response to the restoration. During the Interregnum, Puritanism and a strict way of life were enforced, so literary works from the Restoration period often reflect on life before the Restoration.
1.7. The Augustan Age (1700‐1750)
During this period, English literature was heavily influenced by the works of Virgil and Horace. Prominent English writers of this time include Addison, Steele, Swift, and Alexander Pope. In France, Voltaire was the leading writer.
1.8. The Age of Johnson (1750-1790)
During this period, there was a shift towards Romanticism, although the dominant style was still Neoclassical. Prominent writers such as Dr. Samuel Johnson, Boswell, and Edward Gibbon exemplified the Neoclassical tendencies, while Robert Burns, Thomas Gray, Cowper, and Crabbe demonstrated a departure from the Neoclassical ideal. In America, this period is referred to as the Colonial Period, which encompasses writers from the colonial and revolutionary era, such as Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine.
1.9. The Romantic Period (1790-1832)
The Romantic period emerged as a response to Neoclassicism and had its distinct characteristics. The Romantics valued concepts such as chivalry, honor, connection with nature, the expression of emotions, and individualism, which were prevalent in most texts of the period. The two generations of Romantic poets made significant contributions to English literature. During this time, a group of authors and poets, including Lord Byron, issued a challenge to write a ghost story while staying at Villa Diodati in Switzerland. Mary Shelley won this challenge and went on to create her influential work, Frankenstein (1818), establishing herself as a notable author. The Romantic Period was greatly influenced by the social, political, and cultural events of the time, particularly the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment.
Neoclassicism, as the name suggests, drew inspiration from classical works. Neoclassical texts paid tribute to ancient Greek writers like Sophocles and Aristotle. Neoclassical literature was characterized by reason, accuracy, order, and rationale. An example of a neoclassical work is John Dryden’s Essay of Dramatic Poesy: An Essay (1668).
The Age of Enlightenment coincided with Neoclassicism and shared similar ideals. The main features of the Enlightenment were the pursuit of knowledge, the application of reason, and scientific progress. It also emphasized human happiness, diversity, tolerance, freedom, and a sense of community. An example of a work from the Age of Enlightenment is Voltaire’s Candide (1759).
1.10. The Victorian Period (1832-1901)
The Victorian period, named after Queen Victoria, who became queen in 1837, was similar to the Elizabethan Age. While Romanticism remained popular, Victorian literature leaned towards mysticism, spiritualism, and the supernatural. Gothic fiction gained popularity as well. Victorian literature also reflected the significant advancements in technology, science, evolution, medicine, and industry. The treatment of women and children was a prominent topic of discussion. Serialized publications, such as Charles Dickens’s stories, became popular. Dickens used his publications not only for entertainment but also to critique certain aspects of Victorian society.
The Victorian novel became so well-liked that the neo-Victorian novel is now a popular genre. These modern texts are set in the Victorian era and often include the asylum theme. Furthermore, reading culture changed with the rise of periodicals, pamphlets, and libraries, which increased the desire to read.
1.11. Modernism (1914-1945)
As society advanced, particularly in the fields of science and technology, there was a renewed interest in innovation in art and philosophy. Technological advancements like photography, the moving picture, stream-of-consciousness, and self-reflection influenced the works created during this time. Abstractism and formalism also became important aspects of modernism. Writers broke away from established literary traditions to emphasize self-awareness and the fragmented nature of memory and contemporary society. Additionally, Freudian and Jungian theories had a significant impact on literature. Notable authors and poets from this period include James Joyce, T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Samuel Beckett, and Virginia Woolf.
1.12. Postmodernism (1945 - present)
Many scholars have different opinions on the term, with some using metamodernism or posthumanism. However, a significant number of scholars refer to the literary period after modernism as post-modernism, as it is seen as a response to modernism. Postmodernism, like modernism, is characterized by fragmented narratives and introspection but rejects the grand narratives found in literary works. Instead, it employs skepticism, self-referential techniques, and obscurantism, challenging simplistic narratives and binary oppositions (such as male/female, self/other, object/subject). Postmodernists aim to accurately reflect the current state of society, which they see as broken, disconnected, obscure, irrational, and multifaceted. Postmodernism has influenced various literary theories, including feminist theory, queer theory, and ecocriticism.
2. Literary Movements in America
2.1. Enlightenment/Revolutionary (1750-1800)
During the Enlightenment period, which was characterized by the influence of science and logic, US literature took a different direction from the religious focus of the Puritan era. This period saw the emergence of political writings as a prominent genre, including documents, speeches, and letters. Unlike the Puritan era, there was less emphasis on the Bible and a greater reliance on common sense and scientific reasoning. The writings of this period expanded upon the truths found in the Bible, while still acknowledging the presence of God and spirituality. The main purpose of these writings was to explore concepts such as liberty, patriotism, government, nationalism, and the American character. Prominent authors of this period include Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, and Thomas Paine. The ideas of liberty, freedom, independence, and rights that were discussed and debated during this time continue to be integral to American culture and the political system.
2.2. Romanticism (1800-1840)
Romanticism is a literary and artistic movement of the nineteenth century that arose in reaction against eighteenth-century Neoclassicism and the political focus of the Enlightenment. Placing a premium on fancy, imagination, emotion, nature, individuality, human intuition, and exotica, it moved from personal and political documents to entertaining ones, which gave rise to short stories, poetry, and novels. Purely American topics were introduced, such as frontier life, manifest destiny, and individualism. Romantic elements can be found in the works of American writers as diverse as Cooper, Poe, Thoreau, Emerson, Dickinson, Hawthorne, and Melville. Romanticism is particularly evident in the works of the New England Transcendentalists.
2.3. Transcendentalism (1840-1855)
Transcendentalism was a literary and philosophical movement in 19th-century America. The Transcendentalists, who were based in New England, believed that intuition and individual conscience were more reliable sources of truth than the senses and logical reason. Influenced by Romanticism, they valued the individual spirit and the natural world, seeing divinity in both nature and every person. Prominent Transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Bronson Alcott, W.H. Channing, Margaret Fuller, and Elizabeth Peabody. On the other hand, the anti-transcendentalists, such as Hawthorne and Melville, rejected the idea that humans are inherently good. Another group, known as the Fireside poets, focused on practical aspects of life like death and patriotism.
2.4. Gothic (1833-1901)
Writers such as Poe and Hawthorne reacted to the positive outlook of the Romantics by presenting a more somber perspective. The Industrial Revolution introduced the notion that traditional methods were no longer effective, leading to an exploration of supernatural themes, vulnerability to uncontrollable forces, and the concept of good and evil. It is from these gothic writers that the modern horror genre emerged.
2.5. Realism (1865-1915)
Realism in art refers to the depiction of real-life details. This artistic movement emerged in the 19th century, emphasizing the portrayal of actual experiences rather than imaginary or fantastical elements. Realist artists aimed to present truth and objectivity in their works, focusing on ordinary individuals in everyday situations.
Naturalism is a literary movement that emerged from Realism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Naturalist writers saw people as helpless victims of unchangeable natural laws, as well as the influence of heredity and environment on individuals. Prominent early Naturalist authors include Stephen Crane, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser.
Regionalism, another offshoot of Realism, refers to the tendency of certain authors to focus on specific geographical areas in their writing. Regional writers, such as Willa Cather and William Faulkner, aim to capture the unique culture of a particular region, including its language, customs, beliefs, and history. While local-color writing can be seen as a form of Regionalism, Regionalist authors, like those from the southern United States in the 1920s, often delve deeper into the sociological and anthropological aspects of a region’s culture.
Conclusion
When studying literary movements and the literary canon, exploring the circumstances that led to the emergence and success of certain ideas, philosophies, or perspectives is beneficial. Just as individuals have multiple opinions or philosophies about the world around them, literary texts and their authors or poets also possess diverse viewpoints. As a result, there is often a significant overlap between literary movements, where different or even contradictory literary groups or philosophies coexist simultaneously. While it is possible to read a literary text without knowing its associated literary movement, understanding the movement and period to which it belongs can significantly enhance your comprehension and potentially increase your enjoyment of the text.